Funerary symbols and allegories
An illustrated glossary
Texts by Claudia Crosera
drawings by Patrizia Loccardi
The glossary of symbols in funerary art is a tool designed as a guide in this particular field of visual images to make reading the figurative language of monumental cemetery sculpture easier.
This illustrated glossary will accompany the reader in the discovery of a lexicon widespread in all Christian cemeteries through symbols and meanings of classical and religious inspiration, peculiar to the visual heritage of Western funerary art.
The world of cemeteries is, in fact, very rich in symbolic images that Christians have largely taken from the artistic tradition of Greco-Roman antiquity, reinterpreted in the light of the sacred scriptures, which conceal, between the lines, hidden meanings and allegorical messages.
Among the stones of monuments, often dusty and worn by time, as well as sacred scenes from the Old and New Testaments, depictions of symbolic objects, animals, trees, plants and flowers resurface, telling of how the funerary tradition of the cult of the dead made use of figures and emblems of ancient memory. This short illustrated glossary stems precisely from the need to understand the meaning of the symbols and offer their correct interpretation in the cemetery context, also with the help of drawings - copies from life of the more recurrent decorative elements depicted in the funerary monuments also found in the Sant’Anna Catholic Cemetery.
Bibliography
H. Biedemann, Enciclopedia dei simboli, Milano 1991
J. Hall, Dizionario dei soggetti e dei simboli nell'arte, Milano 1993
L. Debeni Soravito, Il giardino della memoria. Significato dell’elemento vegetale nel culto dei morti e nelle opere funerarie del Goriziano, Italia Nostra sezione di Gorizia, Gorizia 2003
Α (alfa) e Ω (omega)
First and last letters of the Greek alphabet, which, in the funerary context, symbolise God as the beginning and end of all things.
ÀNCHOR
Ancient Christian symbol of hope; the anchor, in fact, which promises stability security for ships, becomes a symbol of faith and hope, also because of its shape reminiscent of the cross.
ANGEL
The word angel derives from the Greek άggeloV meaning messenger. In ancient Eastern religions and Greco-Roman culture, the messengers of the gods are the manifestation of divine will, and this function also survives in the Christian tradition. Angels were in fact created by God as purely spiritual beings, His ministers and guardians for humankind. The angel, guardian of the human soul, protects the righteous or punishes those who do evil. The first angel appears in early Christian art as a young apterous, i.e. wingless, angel dressed in a simple tunic; only from the end of the 4th century does the winged angel appear.
BROKEN COLUMN
In ancient times, the column was a religious symbol, representing the strength and steadfastness of the spirit. In cemetery symbolism, the column is often depicted broken and represents the end of life abruptly or prematurely cut short by death.
BUTTERFLY
The butterfly emerging from the cocoon is the symbol of the soul (in Greek ψυχή - psychè - means butterfly) that leaves the body at the moment of death. In the Christian world it is the symbol of the resurrected human soul. The three stages of its development - larva, chrysalis, butterfly - are used to represent the three stages of human life: life, death and resurrection.
CADUCEUS
Originally, this was a rod with magical properties, which Apollo had given to the god Mercury, messenger of the gods, in order to travel everywhere undisturbed, and with which the god had separated two fighting snakes, later depicted twisted around the staff. The caduceus thus becomes that instrument used to keep apart what is just from what is unjust, a symbol of the victory of order and reason over chaos.
CEMETERY
The term cemetery derives from the Greek verb koimάw (meaning to sleep) and symbolises the place where the dead are buried, i.e. those who sleep while awaiting resurrection. Christianity thus overcomes the ancient and pagan concept of the necropolis as the "city of the dead" to arrive at the concept of a transient sleep of the cemetery as a place where the dead rest while awaiting the day of the Last Judgement.
CHRISMON
The monogram composed of the first two letters of Christ's name (Χρῆστος, Christos in Greek), namely the Greek letters Χ (Chi) and P (Rho), usually intertwined, often placed within a circle, a laurel wreath symbolising victory or a snake biting its tail (ouroboros), symbolising the cyclical nature of time which, being eternal, has no end.
The Christological monogram, used as a symbol of faith since the time of the early Christians, indicates Christ as the beginning and end of all things and is in this sense often associated with the letters A and .W.
The symbol also existed before Christianity and was an abbreviation of the Greek adjective χρηστός meaning good, auspicious, and was therefore used as an auspicious symbol.
CHRIST PANTOCRATOR
Pantocrator literally means 'lord of all things'.
In the Christian world it represents almighty Christ, depicted half length, with His right hand giving a blessing and the Gospel in His left.
CINERARY URN
A large vase inherited from the Greek tradition, with a rounded body and a short, wide neck. Used to contain the ashes of the deceased once cremated. When depicted covered with a cloth, it symbolises mourning.
COMPASS
The compass, traditionally a symbol of geometry and cosmic order, may indicate the profession of the person buried and is usually associated with the figures of the architect or navigator. It may sometimes appear as a Masonic symbol, together with the holy book and the set square: the compass allows the cosmic circle to be drawn, while the set square is used to draw the square.
CREMATION
A funerary rite of ancient origins that consisted in the incineration of the body of the deceased, whose ashes were preserved in the funeral urn. This ritual, widespread in antiquity, was abandoned due to the influence of Christianity, which provided for the burial of the deceased, awaiting the resurrection of bodies on the day of the Last Judgement.
CROSS
The cross, symbol of Christ's sacrifice and more generally of the Christian religion, is made up of two arms (upright and crosspiece) that cross each other forming a right angle. According to the different combinations, they are classified as:
LATIN CROSS
with perpendicular arms and the upright longer than the crosspiece; the most common because, according to St Augustine, it was the one used to crucify Christ.
GREEK CROSS
also known as the square cross because the arms are the same size and cross perpendicularly. It can have variations in the endings of the arms (curled, anchored, etc.).
PATRIARCAL CROSS
cross with two crosspieces, the upper of which is shorter.
TREFOIL CROSS
a cross whose arms end in a trefoil-like element. Also known as the cross of St Maurice.
ORTHODOX CROSS, OR RUSSIAN CROSS
a cross with three crosspieces, the upper two of which are perpendicular to the upright, while the lower one is oblique.
MALTESE CROSS (OR ST JOHN'S CROSS)
cross with arrowhead arms pointing towards the centre, so called because it is the insignia of the Knights of the Order of Malta.
CROSS PATTÉE
Greek cross whose arms have triangular ends.
DEATH
The event that marks the end of all that exists. For Christians it is the moment of passage leading to the afterlife. Conventionally depicted as a cloaked skeleton with scythe and hourglass, both attributes of Time. In funerary sculpture it is often represented as a skull, sometimes winged.
DOG
The dog is the symbol par excellence of loyalty and vigilance and is sometimes depicted near tombs as the guardian of the afterlife.
DOOR
The symbol of the passage between two worlds, the earthly and the heavenly, between what is known and the unknown. It represents the gateway that gives us the power to enter and exit from one place to another.
DOVE
The dove emerging from Noah's ark with the olive branch is the symbol of peace par excellence. In the funerary context, the dove becomes the symbol of the soul of the deceased or of eternal peace and is the 'bird of the soul', flying towards heaven.
EYE
Ancient symbol of God the Father before he assumed human form. Since the 16th century it appears inscribed in a triangle with reference to the Trinity. In the Christian world the divine eye surrounded by the sun's rays became the symbol of God's omnipotence.
FISH
The fish is the oldest symbol used by Christians to denote Christ. In Greek ICQUS ICQUS - Ichthys (meaning fish), an acronym of the expression: 'Jesus Christ Son of God the Saviour' (Jesus = 'Ιησοῦς (Iesoùs)- Christ = Χρῆστος (Christòs)- Son = Υιός (Hyiòs)- of God = Θεoῦ (Theou) – Saviour = Σωτήρ (Sotér)
FLAME
The flame of fire is a symbol of atonement, clarification and purification and is reminiscent of the fire of the Holy Spirit.
FLOWERS
The symbol of ephemeral beauty and at the same time of transience. In the funerary sphere, the flower that blooms and withers refers to the cycle of life, from birth to death, and evokes the image of the blooming paradise garden.
IRIS
as a cemetery symbol the iris is the flower representing hope and wisdom, an emblem of resurrection. Its name in Greek means rainbow and represents the union between humankind and God.
LILY
In ancient times the lily was considered the symbol of light. In Christian times it became the emblem of purity and virginity and is therefore associated with the Virgin and the scene of the Annunciation.
POPPY
ephemeral flower with sleep-inducing properties, symbolising the power of sleep and oblivion that captures men after death. In antiquity it was the characteristic of Hypnos, the Greek god of sleep. In the funerary world, it is depicted either as the blooming flower or in the vegetative pod phase, usually in groups of three.
ROSE
the symbol of love that survives death, and of rebirth. Its perfect yet ephemeral beauty is therefore a reminder of death, and its thorns recall the suffering and pain of life.
FUNERARY GENIE
Winged male figure taken from antiquity from the end of the 18th century. It replaces on occasions the angel in mourning the deceased. According to Roman mythology, the genie was the spirit that accompanied the life of every person and was the voice of their conscience.
GLOBE WITH CROSS
The globe surmounted by the cross, usually held by Christ, represents the power over the whole world of the person holding it.
HOURGLASS
The sand or water clock used in antiquity is a symbol of the ineluctable passage of time and the transience of human life. In the funerary sphere, the hourglass is often winged, and the wings represent, even more eloquently, the speed with which time seems to fly as recalled by the motto 'tempus fugit'.
INTERMENT
The practice of burying the deceased in the ground. The word derives from the Latin “in humus” whose literal meaning is “in the earth”.
INVERTED TORCH
In funerary sculpture, already in ancient times, it symbolised death as it represented the fire of life which was extinguished when the torch was overturned.
MENORAH
The seven-branched candelabrum, the Jewish menorah, originally served to hold oil lamps, later replaced by wax candles. The menorah, with its decorations, was a symbol of the seven days of creation and the seven planets. Starting in medieval art, it became a symbol of Judaism and was often used ornamentally in synagogue decorations as well as in funerary contexts.
OBELISK
Squared stone column, which since the time of ancient Egypt had an important symbolic meaning associated with the sun, fertility and death: in the first sacred obelisk the first rays of the sun are said to have fallen at the time of creation of the world.
OIL LAMP
A symbol of light, the oil lamp represents, with its fire, the instrument that lights our way in darkness and recalls the light of Christ that accompanies the deceased to heaven.
OUROBOROS
The serpent biting its tail to form a circle, symbolising the eternity of the cosmos, eternal return, death and subsequent rebirth.
OWL
Symbol of the goddess Athena, it is a nocturnal animal linked to the moon and denoting wisdom and vigilance, as well as personification of the night and sleep.
PELICAN
The image of the pelican ripping open its breast derives from a Medieval belief whereby this bird wounded its breast to feed blood to its young. In a Christian context the image is taken as a metaphor of the sacrifice of Christ on the cross to save mankind.
PHOENIX
According to ancient tradition, the phoenix was the mythical and beautiful bird, able to live up to five hundred years. This animal, when it felt the end approaching, was said to lie down on a pyre and a new phoenix was regenerated from its ashes. This legendary animal in the Christian world therefore came to symbolise resurrection.
PLANTS
The plant is the symbolic ornament of places of prayer and sorrow.
CYPRESS
According to Ovid (Metamorphoses), a boy named Cyparissus, after he had inadvertently killed with his own arrow the deer he lived with and having vowed to the gods to weep forever, was transformed by Apollo into a tree, which from then on was called a cypress). For this reason, the cypress is planted near graves and became the symbol of mourning and inconsolable grief and consecrated to the infernal deities. The cypress, being evergreen and having a root system that expands downwards, has always been considered particularly suitable for cemeteries.
IVY
In the ancient world, ivy, also used in the East, is the plant surrounding the staff of Dionysus, and symbolises fidelity and eternal life. In the Christian era, this evergreen plant became a symbol of the immortality of the soul after the death of the body and of resurrection.
LAUREL
according to Ovid (Metamorphoses) through the metamorphosis of Daphne, the laurel became the shrub sacred to the god Apollo and a symbol of glory and triumph. Laurel leaves, due to their evergreen nature, are linked to the concept of immortality and therefore became the symbol of eternal life, specifically of new life after the advent of the Redeemer.
YEW
Evergreen tree with narrow, flat, dark green leaves and red berries. A poisonous plant, which is perhaps why it is associated with death.
OAK
Long-lived tree, symbol of solidity. In Latin it was called 'robur', meaning strength. In cemeteries, the oak is therefore the symbol of strength, while its leaves and branches, intertwined to form crowns, are the emblem of power and spiritual depth.
OLIVE TREE
Associated in the pagan world with Minerva, goddess of wisdom and the arts. Later became a symbol par excellence of peace and harmony, of union between God and mankind.
PALM TREE
Already in ancient times the palm tree was the symbol of light and victory, so much so that it was carried in triumphs by the Romans as a symbol of military conquest. In the Christian world, the palm tree became the symbol of the triumph of Christ's faith over death. The palm tree, symbol of Easter and Jesus' entry into Jerusalem, became the characteristic of holy martyrs.
POPLAR
Hades, god of the underworld, in order to keep Leuce, who was a mortal, close to him, transformed her into a poplar and placed her at the entrance to the underworld. The poplar, for this reason, generally appears linked to the afterlife, pain, sacrifice and tears. This funerary tree represents the regressive forces of nature: memory more than hope, time past more than future.
RIVER
With flowing water, the river is the symbol of fertility, renewal and purification: its current is linked to life and to death.
SARCOPHAGUS
Derived from the Greek σαρκοφάγος (that which eats, consumes flesh), originally referring to limestone attributed with the property of rapidly consuming corpses. The term indicates burial urns in stone, wood, terracotta or metal, mostly monumental, decorated with bas-reliefs or high reliefs.
SCYTHE
An attribute of Saturn and time, the scythe, wielded by a skeleton, is the symbol of death par excellence, alluding to the harvest and thus referring to the end of life which, like a scythe stroke in a wheat field, can strike all living beings indiscriminately.
SERPENT
In the funerary sphere of the Christian era, the serpent is the personification of sin, linked to the biblical scene of the temptation of Eve.
SET SQUARE
Instrument used in architecture to measure right angles, hence a symbol of rectitude and justice; symbol used to identify an architect or a Freemason.
SHIP
A symbol of life's journey, in the Christian world it alludes to the church that offers the faithful the chance to reach the port of salvation.
In ancient times it was associated with Charon, the ferryman who ferried the souls of the dead to the afterlife.
SHELL
An ambivalent symbol that since antiquity has been linked to birth to become, in the funerary sphere, an allusion to the tomb that welcomes man before the resurrection. It therefore refers to salvation and new life after the journey of regeneration and repentance and clearly refers to the themes of death and resurrection.
SKULL
A symbol of death that did not appear in antiquity, but only from the Middle Ages onwards. It was a symbol that allowed meditation about death and the transience of earthly life. When depicted at the foot of the cross, it alludes to Adam and is the symbol of redemption.
SOLOMON'S KNOT
Decorative symbol found in both synagogues and early Christian churches. Consisting of two intertwined rings, it represents the profound union between the divine and the human and is a symbol of alliance, in particular between earth and heaven. The knot is also emblematic of the apparently insoluble enigma that only the wise King Solomon was able to decipher.
STAR OF DAVID
Six-pointed star formed by two overlapping triangles, which supposedly took its shape from the alchemical symbols of the four elements (fire/water/air/earth). King Solomon, son of David and Bathsheba, used it until his death to drive out demons, which is why it was also called Solomon's Seal or Shield of David.
STORK
A migratory bird symbolising longevity and good luck, the stork, like the ibis and heron, is thought to kill snakes, so in Christian symbolism they become animals that defeat evil and sin.
TORCH
The lit torch refers to the ancient tradition of burying the dead at night by torchlight: the burning torch is a symbol of burning life.
TREE
In Christian visual imagery the tree, bare in winter and covered with leaves in spring and summer, is the symbol of the cycle of life, death and subsequent resurrection. The evergreen tree, favoured in cemeteries, is the emblem of immortality.
WINGED SPHERE
The sphere, symbol of perfection and eternity as it has no beginning and no end, represents the transience and fleetingness of time.